National Security Vs. Personal Privacy - 1838 Words

The topic of national security vs. personal privacy, in recent events, has been very controversial regarding which is more appropriate. On one hand, the government can search through personal, private files without any consent from the owner, thus making the information no longer private. The opposing side argues that the government is invading personal privacy of innocent civilians, violating the Fourth Amendment Rights to prohibit unreasonable searches and seizures. Both have valid points, both positive and negative; however, the invasion of personal privacy by the law is only justified in a dire, life or death situation. The government should not have the ability to view private information in an everyday situation because it is a strong violation of the Fourth Amendment, it is too invasive, and it bypasses the limits of personal privacy when necessary. Therefore, the government should not be able to view personal, private information of civilians unless absolutely necessary. One undeniable right that all Americans possess is the right to prohibit unreasonable searches and seizures, and by accessing civilian’s personal digital documents, the Government is violating that right. When it comes down to a debate between personal privacy and national security, the Government chooses to undermine the constitutional standards through overly invasive surveillance of civilian’s personal documents (Paul/Yoho paragraph 4). This statement hereby implies that the government isShow MoreRelatedPersonal Privacy Vs. National Security1348 Words   |  6 PagesPersonal Privacy vs. National Security An example of history repeating itself is the similarity of the sequence of events between the Palmer Raids and the NSA’s PRISM program. Both of these events in U.S. history started with Americans calling on the government for protection. The government then responded by creating programs to protect, but while working to protect the government in both events used illegal practices. These practices soon were leaked which caused americans to not support the government’sRead MoreThe Great Debate : Privacy Vs National Security1055 Words   |  5 PagesIII Honors 18 April 2016 The Great Debate: Privacy vs National Security In the digital age, the citizens of the United States are torn between which they value more: privacy or national security. On one hand, the people need to be safe from cyber attacks and terrorism, while on the other, the government should be aware of the privacy of the people it governs. The government should not go so far in protecting the country that it interferes with the personal lives of the citizens. There needs to beRead MoreIndividual Privacy vs. National Security: A Report628 Words   |  3 PagesIndividual Privacy vs National Security In liberal-democratic societies, the right to individual privacy is among the core components of the democratic system. The right to privacy is enshrined in the Constitution of the United States and is a part of value systems Americans are proud of and cherish. Concepts related to privacy touch on freedom, trust, the right to be left alone, obedience, and free will (Michael Michael, 2006, p. 360). The privacy needs of citizens, however, can be fully metRead MoreThe Importance Of Personal Information And How People Feel About It1613 Words   |  7 PagesImportance of personal information and how people feel about it Undoubtedly, personal informations are critical to all of everyone. People want their personal datas to be protected so that others won’t have access to them without permission. Otherwise, leak and misuse of personal informations can lead to serious consequences. Individuals and organizations can use other people’s personal informations without their allowances, which can be harmful to the livelihoods of these people. For example,Read MoreEssay about Individual Privacy vs. National Security1039 Words   |  5 PagesIndividual Privacy vs. National Security Antonio Ewings ENG 122 English Compositions 2 Instructor: Sarah McDonald January 16, 2012 Individual Privacy vs. National Security Individual privacy is basically the exposure of a person’s limitations to the open public. There are different perspectives in different scenarios on a person’s individual privacy. Every human has a right to their own privacy. Some people scream more than others on how much privacy they actually have. In a perfect worldRead MorePublic Security Vs. Privacy1288 Words   |  6 Pagesnumerous cameras. Although January Mughal in her article â€Å"National Security Vs. Privacy In The Modern Age†(2016), insisted that surveillance is necessary to maintain the security of United States, but it is doubtful based on many research because the uses of government surveillance are inefficient, the surveillance cannot stop terrorist attacks, and the ethical issues of surveillance cannot be ignored. In the article, â€Å"National Security Vs. Privacy In The Modern Age†(2016), January Mughal proposed thatRead MorePrivacy Is More Important? Privacy Or National Security?1278 Words   |  6 PagesDuring the past decade, an issue has arisen from the minds of people, on which is more important? Privacy or national security? The problem with the privacy is that people do not feel they have enough of it and national security is increasing causing the government to be less worried about the people. National security is growing out of control which has led to the decrease in people’s privacy and has created fear in the eyes of U.S. citizens. â€Å"Twelve years after the terrorist attacks of Sept. 11Read MoreThe Security Vs. Privacy1537 Words   |  7 Pages1. At stake are two forces representing a critical dilemma of the post-2001 world: security vs. privacy. Fighting for security, the FBI is seeking â€Å"backdoor† access to the iPhone in question that was used by one of the two suspects in the San Bernardino shooting in December 2015. Defending privacy is Apple, Inc., designer and marketer of the Apple iPhone. The two suspects under investigation are linked with known terrorist groups, possibly ISIS, with definitive proof of these links locked away inRead MoreThe Security Is More Important Than Our Nation s Security And Defeating Terrorism Trump All Other Priorities.954 Words   |  4 Pagesdoubt that our nation’s security and defeating terrorism trump all other priorities.† The quote by Arlen Specter stresses the importance of a strong and persistent security system in America. After the dreadful events on September 11, 2001, the issue of whether privacy or the nation’s security is more important arose in the United States. Even after fifteen years, this debate is still relevant in politics. Our nation’s security is more important than the citizen’s privacy because lives will be protectedRead MorePersonal Data Privacy . Frame Analysis And Advocacy Field1686 Words   |  7 PagesPersonal Data Privacy Frame Analysis and Advocacy Field Guide This framing analysis includes 10 recent print news articles that address personal data privacy. The 5 dominant frames identified include: unauthorized data collection and misuse, commercial application of personal data, civil liberties (personal data in the legal system), data protection, and innovation. There were Pro and Con arguments present for each frame with the exception of the last, no Con arguments were present for the innovation

The Ethical Consequences Of Eating Meat - 1986 Words

Eating meat may be one of the oldest behaviors of mankind. However, it has been proven humans do not need meat to survive. It has been proven vegetarians can live an equal, if not better, healthy lifestyle compared to those who consume meat. Yet Vegetarians, although they are becoming more accepted and common, are still seen as a liberal niche. Meat eating in society does not even give a second thought to most people, but the ethicists and philosophers are asking: Is eating meat morally correct? Of course there will be many opposing arguments from meat eaters (note that I myself eat meat on an almost daily basis), stating, â€Å"Who cares†, â€Å"Wild animals always do it†, or â€Å"I can’t do anything about it†. But through deep thought and†¦show more content†¦To eat meat, you must accept the fact you are behaving unethical, and come to terms with your actions, if you are a Utilitarian. Spearheaded by Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, t he moral theory of Utilitarianism was founded upon the belief that we should all make decisions that benefit society as a whole, not acting selfishly for the sole benefit of ourselves. Utilitarianism focuses on the end results and the costs and benefit those results yield. It is an ethical principle, which is intended to maximize happiness for all parties affected by the decision. By using a cost benefit analysis, or hedonic calculus, one can examine if a certain action is an ethical behavior. This requires assigning a number value to all pains and pleasures and calculating them to determine is the behavior is ethical. If there are more positives than negatives, it seems according to Utilitarianism, that you should go ahead and make the positive action. It can be applied to direct or indirect actions, only dependent upon the final outcome. However, in the foundation of Utilitarianism, the key words are â€Å"all parties†. This includes non-human animals, sentient or no t. In An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation, Bentham states a now famous line to animal rights activists, â€Å"The question is not, Can they reason? Nor, can they talk? But, can they suffer?†. If animals incur pain

Aids (627 words) Essay Example For Students

Aids (627 words) Essay AidsScientists have concluded, based on mathematical research, that the virus that lead to the epidemic of AIDS can be traced all the way back to 1930, somewhere around Central Africa. Bette Korber, of the Los Alamos National Laboratory in New Mexico, presented this conclusion at the Conference of Retroviruses. The notion that HIV was introduced in contaminated oral polio vaccines in Africa between the years of 1957 and 1961 has been often debated and challenged. The results presented by Korber, not only refute the before mentioned allegations, but also move us toward finding out where the virus really came from and in which direction it is heading in the future. The first sample discovered in 1959 comes from a man in Congo, who died as a member of the M class of HIV, the type that most people are infected with today. However old the virus was, it was evident that it wasnt the first of its kind. The reason that the virus was ever connected to polio is because in the same year of 1959 , the introduction of oral polio vaccines, supposedly tested on chimpanzees, came to the continent of Africa. However in reality, states Stanley Plotkin of the Wistar Institute in Philadelphia, ?the introduction of HIV in chimpanzees occurred well before the polio vaccine.?The machine used in the process of determination is the Los Alamos Nirvana Machine, which is capable of making one trillion calculations per second. After plugging in dates, formulas and locations, the Nirvana located the origin of the HIV virus as being 1930, however the range of error shows that it could have been anywhere from 1915 to 1942. The Nirvana was also able to determine that the virus appeared in the Caribbean Islands such as Haiti, in the 1960s, while it came to America more than ten years later. It is quite definite that the virus came from chimpanzees in the area around Gabon, Cameroon, and the Central African rainforest. It most probably passed onto the hunters while they were butchering the animal s. After that, the virus has taken on six different strands, and is spread in humans mostly through sexual intercourse. IssueThe matter being discussed here is the AIDS epidemic. AIDS and the HIV virus are very real issues in the world and especially in America. Whether it is the needle of the syringe of a junkie, a blood transfusion or the exchange of bodily fluids, people are getting infected and dying every day with this disease, and there is no remedy. Each day thousands of researchers scientists and mathematicians try to go further, so that they might bring the world closer to a cure. A lot of progress has been made, and as a result people are living ten, fifteen, and even twenty years with AIDS. This article demonstrates to us that developments are still being made, and we are slowly but surely approaching a revolutionary discovery. Opinion It is very refreshing for me to read articles of this kind. I see people dying of AIDS and it scares me to think that, if I am not overly cautious, it could be me as well. The fact that we are making progress such as this, where we now know that HIV really originated thirty years before we presumed, is leading us to understand more about this epidemic. The more we understand about where it came from, the better our chances of understanding what caused it, and how to cure it. I realize that the discovery of a vaccine is still far off, and there is a chance that there will never be a complete cure. However, with each new scientific discovery, I have a renewed hope in our civilizations survival of the plague we commonly call AIDS.

MICHELANGELO Essays - Sistine Chapel, Renaissance Painters

MICHELANGELO 1.Early Childhood If you don't know about art, then you don't know about Michelangelo Buonarotti. He was have to been the greatest and certainly the most famous artist produced by western civilization, and universally viewed as the Supreme Renaissance Artist. Throughout his achievement he has the occupation of being a : Painter, Sculptor, Architect, and also a poet. With this kind of ability this man had to have had an impact on Western Europe. As a member of the well-known Florentine family, Michelangelo was born near a small city Known as Arezzo, on March 6, 1475. His education ended in which we would think to have been to early for a child to finish school, at the age of 13. He received his tutelage in painting, not school work from the artist Domenico, and Bertoldo di Giovanni . He was in constantly in the presence of art. These experiences gave Michelangelo a clear sense on true art. His education was shown in one of his first paintings The Madonna of the Stairs, was painted when he was younger than 20 years of age. 2.Contribution to Renaissance Michelangelo contributed many of his greatest arts and statues to many of the great Kings and Queens of his time. One of his first and most famous statues was Bacchus, the God of wine. In this statue Michelangelo magnified the classical ideal of beauty. His statue of David was also a reflection of this idea. Michelangelo was given the most respect when he sculpted the monumental marble piece named Pieta, which was a piece that showed Athletic prowess and dynamic action. This colossal piece was carved in Florence which gave the people of Florence a symbol of the proud independence of the Florentine Republic. This is just ONE of the prime examples of why Michelangelo contributed to the Renaissance. Don't think that Mike was done yet. His biggest contribution to the Renaissance was when he painted the Sistine Chapel. His organization of the Sistine ceiling frescoes represented the most complex piece ever created in Western Art. The painting itself contains a complex illusion in which it serves as a frame for sculpturelike forms. From the nine paintings on the ceiling, the most unique scene was the Creation of Adam, which showed Michelangelo's new look at the human body. It took him 4 years to complete the ceiling, but if you see it you will understand why it was worth the wait. Sadly to say that Michelangelo died at the right bold age of 89 on February 18,1564. 3.Conclusion As you can see that this man wasn't the smartest of all people, but that wasn't he was known for. He was known for his beautiful paintings and marvelous statues. He was to have been said to be one of greatest artists ever produced, and his worked proved that and held true. So in conclusion I think that I am able and safe to say that Michelangelo Buonarotti was truly a Renaissance man. Works Cited Alexander, Sidney, Michelangelo the Florentine(1985) and Nicodemus: The Roman Years of Michalengelo Buonarroti (1984): Michelangelo, Complete Poems and Scarlet Letters, trans. By Creighton Gilbert, 2d ed. (1965; repr. 1980); Cambon, Glauco, Michelangelo's Poetry (1985); Goldscheidner, Ludwig, Michelangelo: Paintings, Sculpture, Architecture, 4th ed. (1964) ;Groliers Multimedia Encyclopedia 1995 ed.(Internet)

How to Set up a Local Area Network essays

How to Set up a Local Area Network essays Networking computers may sound like a complicated task but, in actuality, is not very complex. Networking computers will allow one computer to communicate with other computers without a phone line. This can enable your computer to share files, and play games with the other computers. You will need a network card installed for each computer you are setting up, two network cables, and one network hub. Follow these instructions and your computers will be networked. Connecting the hardware in a network is fairly simple. You take the networking cable and plug it into the networking card in the computer(see picture 1). Then you run the cord to the hub and plug it in(see picture 3). The other networking cable should go from the hub to the networking card in the other computer. That is all that is required for the setup of the hardware. When the network card(see picture 2) is installed, if it is plug and play, the installation wizard will appear. Keep on clicking the next button until the finish button appears. Click the finish button and the software for the card will be installed. Now an icon will appear on the desktop. Right click on the network icon and click on properties. A box will appear, and then you click the identification tab.(see diagram 1) Enter the information boxes, and click on the configuration tab.(see diagram 2) Click on File and Print Sharing, and click both of the little boxes. Some games require that the TCP/IP protocol be set up. Click on the add button and click protocol. Then you click on the add button and Windows will get ready to install the protocol. Click on the Microsoft under the manufacturer and TCP/IP in the network protocol box. The protocol will now be installed when you click the ok button. You will now see an adapter named something like TCP/IP-> HP EN1207D-TX PCI 10/100 Fast Ethernet Adapter. Double click on those words and the TCP/IP Properties box should ...

Vindicate, Avenge and Revenge

Vindicate, Avenge and Revenge Vindicate, Avenge and Revenge Vindicate, Avenge and Revenge By Maeve Maddox The verbs avenge and revenge mean basically the same thing, but avenge is widely perceived as having nobler connotations than revenge. Both words, like the English word vindicate, derive from the Latin verb vindicare/vendicare: â€Å"to claim, to set free, to punish.† In early usage, all three words, vindicate, avenge, and revenge meant, â€Å"to punish† or â€Å"to exact retribution.† In modern usage, the most common meaning of vindicate is â€Å"to clear from censure, criticism, suspicion, or doubt† or â€Å"to justify.† People and things may be vindicated: Mubarak’s Wife Says Husband Has Been Vindicated Bayliss insists the decision made before his appointment to retain England’s leading Test run-scorer as captain has been vindicated. A year after his shock resignation, Pope Emeritus Benedict has no regrets and believes history will vindicate his tumultuous and much-criticized papacy. Avenge and revenge, however, retain the ideas of punishment and retaliation. Note: The word revenge functions as both noun and verb. Avenge is always a verb. Its noun form is vengeance. Although there is no authoritative rule to distinguish avenge and vengeance from revenge, a perception exists that there is a difference. For example, The Chicago Manual of Style offers this note: Avenge connotes an exaction for a wrong. The corresponding noun is vengeance. Revenge connotes the infliction of harm on another out of anger or resentment. Revenge is much more commonly a noun. Likewise, Paul Brians (Common Errors in English Usage), promotes the distinction: When you try to get vengeance for people who’ve been wronged, you want to avenge them. You can also avenge a wrong itself: â€Å"He avenged the murder by taking vengeance on the killer.† Substituting â€Å"revenge† for â€Å"avenge† in such contexts is very common, but frowned on by some people. They feel that if you seek revenge in the pursuit of justice you want to avenge wrongs, not revenge them. Two examples from literature illustrate the difference. In The Princess Bride, Inigo Montoya seeks vengeance for the murder of his father, whereas in Moby Dick, Captain Ahab seeks revenge for an injury inflicted by an animal. Montoya has justice on his side, but Ahab acts from wounded pride, irrationally attributing vindictive intentions to a nonhuman creature. Considering how mean-spirited cyber culture has become, the distinction between revenge and avenge is probably a useful one to observe. Here, for example, are the titles of just a few of the distressingly large number of how-to articles on the topic of punishing people for perceived affronts: How to Get Revenge on Anyone The Ten Commandments of Revenge 50 Random Ways To Get Revenge How to take revenge on your Boss 10 Outrageous Ways to Get Revenge On An Ex How to Get Subtle Revenge on Your Enemies How to take revenge on Your Parents How to Get the Sweetest Revenge Ever Note: Until recently, the phrase â€Å"take revenge† was more common than â€Å"get revenge.† â€Å"Take revenge† is still more common than â€Å"get revenge† in the Ngram database of printed books, but a Google search shows â€Å"get revenge† ahead of â€Å"take revenge† on the Web. Perhaps we should reserve vengeance and avenge for retribution motivated by a wrong that any reasonable person would regard as appalling and use revenge to denote the desire to hurt someone for no better motive than anger or hurt pride. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Vocabulary category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:The Royal Order of Adjectives Broadcast vs Broadcasted as Past FormThe "Pied" in The Pied Piper

What were the status and the roles of Jews under Islamic Rule Discuss Essay

What were the status and the roles of Jews under Islamic Rule Discuss 3 issues - Essay Example The Nazi forces had committed many atrocities against the Jews. They burnt the papers, which contained many important discoveries of Albert Einstein. The paper presents an overview of Jews under Islamic rule. Muslims used to support other religion generally. Muslims believe Islam is only the religion. Muslims feel that the Jews are wrong in believing theirs is a god’s religion. Muslims accept Jesus as a prophet and messiah whom Christians are worshipping as god. Christians have paid much attention towards Jews in the west, whereas in Muslims countries, the Jews were given less importance but they were wealthy. Christians and Jews are friendly in Europe with good religions atmosphere. Whereas in Muslims countries the Jews were treated as minority amongst other religions which resulted in they did not become intruded in Muslim areas. It’s every country’s responsibility to protect it citizen’s basic human rights. Human rights violation should be considered as a serious offence, legal and appropriate action should be taken against those who violate these rights. Countries like Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia and most of the other Islamic countries don’t even consider providing and implementing basic human rights. Jews comes under the minority section and have been given less importance. In Islamic countries the important hurdle is the Shariat1 law. This law prevents basic amenities to the minority sections. According to this law women were not equal to men, they should always be under veil, only her members could see her face, men can marry as any times as they want, women should get married only once and many other stringent laws are under implementation. The Israel and Palestinian conflict has taken center stage in the world politics. It also reflects a fight between the Jews and Muslims and those who are in support with both the religions respectively. It is seen as a war between

Challenges and Solutions for Long-Term Care in Aging Populations Assignment

Challenges and Solutions for Long-Term Care in Aging Populations - Assignment Example According to the latest statistics carried out around 40 million people in the United States are aged more than 65 years of age and the country is projected to have 89 million citizens above 65 years by the year 2050. This raises a concern for the help the elderly will be given and by whom. Will the facilities like Medicare and Medicaid provide the service or will they have to depend on their families for support? The above issues show the urgency and the need for the health sector and the government to look into this problem and tackle it as a matter of urgency (the United States, 1986). The long-term care services both in-house and in the healthcare facilities are associated with medical care but they have an emphasis on helping the elderly with their daily chores which include bathing and preparing meals on the condition that they need this assistance. The Medicare is headed by a health professional through a health aid (normal person) will also help the elderly. The issuing of the special equipment that they require which include wheelchairs and grab bars is also a responsibility of the long-term care service providers. The long-term care services are however not only needed by the elderly, but research shows that only a small percentage of the people who require the service are of the younger age (Wilson Company,2014). The challenges they face come from the day to day duties that they are supposed to perform and may face a lot of challenges which may range from the lack of finances. The government and other healthcare providers in the United States have not put a lot of emphasis on the long-term care services and as a result, the nurses and the administrators find themselves overstretched by the resources they have at their disposal. The other challenge is the lack of expertise in dealing with the elderly in the community, and they are not aware of what to do or how to treat people who are elder than them. There should be some training that should be provided to help the nurses and the administrators have the right knowledge of dealing with the elderly cases (Nyce, 2005).

Nature of Public Administration Essay Example for Free

Nature of Public Administration Essay Before we discuss about the meaning, definition, nature, scope and importance of public administration we will try to know what is administration, organisation and management. As these terms are often used interchangeably and synonymously, it is pertinent to know the differences and distinctions between these three terms. According to William Schulze Administration is the force, which lays down the object for which an organisation and its management are to strive and the broad policies under which they are to operate. An Organisation is a combination of the necessary human beings, materials, tools, equipment and working space, appurtenances brought together in systematic and effective co-relation to accomplish some desired object. Management is that which leads guides and directs an organisation for the accomplishment of pre-determined object. To put the above in simple terms, administration sets the goal, management strives to attain it and organisation is the machine of the management for the attainment of the ends determined by the administration. Some scholars have a different view about the administration and management. According to Peter Drucker management is associated with the business activity, which has to show economic performance, whereas administration is associated with the non business activities like activities of the Government. The other view is that administration is associated with performing routine things in known settings in accordance with certain procedures, rules, and regulations. The Management is associated with performing functions like risk taking, dynamic, creative and innovative functions. Some scholars of Public Administration are closely associated with the first view that is, administration is a determinative function. Management, on other hand is an executive function that is primarily concerned with carrying out the broad policies laid down by the administration.

The Social Contract Tradition: Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau :: Philosophy Philosophical Papers

The Social Contract Tradition: Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau ABSTRACT: The classical contract tradition of Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau have enjoyed such fame and acceptance as being basic to the development of liberal democratic theory and practice that it would be heretical for any scholar, especially one from the fringes, to critique. But the contract tradition poses challenges that must be given the flux in the contemporary socio-political universe that at once impels extreme nationalism and unavoidable globalism. This becomes all the more important not in order to dislodge the primacy of loyalty and reverence to this tradition but from another perspective which hopes to encourage that the anchorage of disclosure be implemented. The contract tradition makes pronouncements on what is natural and what is nonnatural. It offers what many have contended are rigorous arguments for these pronouncements that are "intuitive," "empirical," "logical," "psychological," "moral," "religio-metaphysical." What I offer in this essay is a challenge from the outside. I ask: 1) on what empirical data are the material presuppositions of contractarianism built? 2) what is the epistemological foundation of contractarianism? 3) is contractarianism not derivable from any other form of sociological presupposition except that of the state of nature? 4) does any human know a "state of nature"? 5) given the answers to the above questions, to what extent are the legal and moral foundations of contractarianism sacrosanct? I attempt to answer these questions in what can only be a sketch, but my answers suggest that it is very presumptuous of contractarianist to suppose that they have captured the only logically valid basis of democratic practice universally. Introduction The classical social contract tradition of Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau have, in spite of their variation in themes and emphases, enjoyed such fame and acceptance as being basic to the development of liberal democratic theory and practice that it would be almost heresy for any scholar, especially one from the fringes or margins of mainstream (socio-political) philosophical academia, to post frontal, side, arial, rear or sub-surface attack and critique. But the social contract tradition poses challenges that must be accepted on various counts, with new insights and interpretations, given the fluxed reality in contemporary socio-political universe that at once impels extreme nationalism and unavoidable globalism. This becomes all the more important, not simply in order to dislodge the primacy of the loyalty and the reverence of devotion from the followers of this tradition

The Urban Heat Island and Its Impact on Heat Waves in Shanghai

Int J Biometeorol (2010) 54:75–84 DOI 10. 1007/s00484-009-0256-x ORIGINAL PAPER The urban heat island and its impact on heat waves and human health in Shanghai Jianguo Tan & Youfei Zheng & Xu Tang & Changyi Guo & Liping Li & Guixiang Song & Xinrong Zhen & Dong Yuan & Adam J. Kalkstein & Furong Li & Heng Chen Received: 17 December 2008 / Revised: 29 July 2009 / Accepted: 3 August 2009 / Published online: 1 September 2009 # ISB 2009 Abstract With global warming forecast to continue into the foreseeable future, heat waves are very likely to increase in both frequency and intensity. In urban regions, hese future heat waves will be exacerbated by the urban heat island effect, and will have the potential to negatively influence the health and welfare of urban residents. In order to investigate the health effects of the urban heat island (UHI) in Shanghai, China, 30 years of meteorological J. Tan (*) : X. Zhen Shanghai Urban Environmental Meteorology Center, 951 Jinxiu Road, Pudong, Shanghai 200135, China e-mail: [email  protected] com Y. Zheng Key Laboratory of Meteorological Disaster of Ministry of Education, Nanjing University of Information Science &Technology, Nanjing 210044, China X. TangShanghai Meteorological Bureau, 166 Puxi Road, Shanghai 200030, China C. Guo : G. Song : D. Yuan Shanghai Municipal Center for Disease Control & Prevention, 1380 ZhongShan West Road, Shanghai 200336, China L. Li : F. Li : H. Chen Injury Prevention Research Centre, Medical College of Shantou University, 22 Xinling Road, Shantou City 515041, Guangdong Province, China A. J. Kalkstein Department of Geography and Environmental Engineering, United States Military Academy, West Point, NY, USA records (1975–2004) were examined for 11 first- and second-order weather stations in and around Shanghai.Additionally, automatic weather observation data recorded in recent years as well as daily all-cause summer mortality counts in 11 urban, suburban, and exurban regions (1998â₠¬â€œ 2004) in Shanghai have been used. The results show that different sites (city center or surroundings) have experienced different degrees of warming as a result of increasing urbanization. In turn, this has resulted in a more extensive urban heat island effect, causing additional hot days and heat waves in urban regions compared to rural locales. An examination of summer mortality rates in and aroundShanghai yields heightened heat-related mortality in urban regions, and we conclude that the UHI is directly responsible, acting to worsen the adverse health effects from exposure to extreme thermal conditions. Keywords Global warming . Urban heat island . Heat wave . Human health Introduction In recent years, the impact of weather on human health has become an issue of increased significance, especially considering the potential impacts of global warming and an increased urban heat island effect due to urbanization (Kunst et al. 1993; Kalkstein and Greene 1997; Guest et al. 1999; Sm oyer et al. 2000).Warming of the climate system is unequivocal. The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) clearly indicates that the updated 100-year linear trend (1906–2005) of global surface temperature is 0. 74 K. The warming trend over the last 50 years has averaged 0. 13 K per decade and 11 of the last 12 years (1995–2006) rank among the 12 warmest years since 1850 (IPCC 2007). A Int J Biometeorol (2010) 54:75–84 76 warming climate will likely result in an increase in the frequency and intensity of heat waves (McMichael et al. 1996; Meehl et al. 2001; Patz and Khaliq 2002). The urban heat island (UHI) has become one of the largest roblems associated with the urbanization and industrialization of human civilization, as the increased temperatures associated with the UHI tend to exacerbate the threats to human health posed by thermal stress. As a result, the UHI has been a central theme among climatologists, and it is well documented in many metropolitan areas a round the world (Oke 1973; Katsoulis and Theoharatos 1985; Balling and Cerveny 1987; Lee 1992; Saitoh et al. 1996; Yamashita 1996; Bohm 1998; Figuerola and Mazzeo 1998; Klysik and Fortuniak 1999; Kim and Baik 2002; Wilby 2003). The UHI experienced by many cities is larger at night than uring the day, more pronounced in winter than in summer, and is most apparent when winds are weak. For example, in Beijing, the difference in mean air temperature between the city center and surrounding fields can be as much as 4. 6 K (Zhang et al. 2002; Song and Zhang 2003). This results in additional hot days in urban locales, which can directly influence the health and welfare of city residents. As UHIs are characterized by increased temperature, they can potentially increase the magnitude and duration of heat waves within cities. Scientists have also discovered that the impacts of heat waves on humans vary among ifferent regions within a city. As early as 1972, Buechley et al. (1972) investigated the relationship between the heat island and â€Å"death island† and found that the mortality rate during a heat wave increases exponentially with the maximum temperature, an effect that is enhanced by the UHI. Clarke (1972) revealed that the nighttime effect of UHIs can be particularly harmful during a heat wave, as it deprives urban residents of the cool relief found in rural areas during the night. Thus, during heat waves, death rates are often much higher in cities than in outlying environs (Henschel et al. 1969; Buechley et al. 972; Clarke 1972; Jones et al. 1982; Smoyer 1998). An epidemiologic study of mortality during the summer 2003 heat wave in Italy also illustrated that those living in urban regions have an elevated risk of death compared to those living in suburban or rural areas as a result of heightened urban temperatures (Conti et al. 2005). Unlike purely tropical regions that remain warm all year round, Shanghai experiences a subtropical climate with cold, dry winters and wet, hot summers, as well as a pronounced UHI (Ding et al. 2002; Zhou et al. 2002). Shanghai has been found to be prone to heat-related ortality (Tan et al. 2004, 2007), although few studies have quantitatively or qualitatively examined the impact of the UHI on the frequency or the intensity of heat waves along with its corresponding impact on heat-related mortality among the urban and suburban populations. Thus, the goal of this paper is to determine the influence of the Shanghai UHI on heat waves and human health within both urban and rural locales. Materials and methods The study was carried out over the region of Shanghai, China, which encompasses approximately 6,300 km2, and contains a population listed as slightly over 18 million in 006. In order to capture the effects of urban areas on local climate, 30 years (1975–2004) of daily maximum temperature were compiled covering only the summer months, defined here as May through October. These data were examined for 11 first- and second-order weather stations (Fig. 1) and were obtained from the Shanghai Meteorological Bureau. The specific sites in this study are: the urban site (XuHui-58367), suburban sites (MingHang-58361, BaoShan58362, PuDong-58470, JiaDing-58365), and exurban sites (ChongMing-58366, NanHui-58369, JinShan-58460, QinPu58461, SongJiang-58462, FengXian-58463).For each year throughout the 30-year research period, we first examined the yearly extreme maximum temperature (the single hottest day in each year), the mean daily maximum temperature in midsummer (defined as July through August), and the number of hot days (defined as days exceeding 35 °C in Tmax) for each of the 11 stations. Simple linear regression was used to discern overall trends in the data, and the statistical significance of these trends was assessed (Table 1). The number of hot days, as well as heat wave duration at urban, suburban, and exurban sites, are listed in Table 2.The UHI intensity is typically de fined as the temperature difference (? T) between the urban (u), suburban (s), and exurban (e) locations. This is described in terms of the difference in daily maximum temperature between the urban center and suburban sites (? Tu-s), and that between urban center and the exurban stations (? Tu-e). The observed values of urban, suburban, and exurban sites were represented by the temperature from the urban site (XuHui station), the average of four suburban stations (MinHang, BaoShan, PuDong, JiaDing), and the average temperature from the exurban stations (ChongMing,NanHui, JinShan, QingPu, SongJiang and FengXian), respectively. The UHI intensity of each site (? Ti) is calculated by the temperature difference between the urban site (XuHui station) and each suburban or exurban site as follows: $Ti ? Tmax0 A Tmaxi While Tmax0 is the daily maximum temperature at the urban site, Tmaxi is the daily maximum temperature at the suburban or exurban site. In order to investigate the diurnal Int J Biometeorol (2010) 54:75–84 77 Fig. 1 Shanghai within China and the spatial distribution of 11 weather stations across Shanghai variation of the UHI intensity, the temperature difference etween the urban (XuHui), suburban (JiaDing), and exurban (ChongMing, FengXian, JinShan, SongJiang) sites are calculated from automatic weather stations from June through August, 2005–2007. The observed variations in the urban heat island effect have been plotted in Figs. 2, 3, and 4. Here, a â€Å"hot day† is defined as a day with a daily maximum temperature exceeding 35 °C in at least 1 of the 11 sites in Shanghai. Days below this threshold were categorized as â€Å"non-heat days. † Additionally, a heat wave is defined as a period with at least three consecutive hot days. Although this definition is somewhat arbitrary, it was hosen to correspond with the Chinese Meteorological Administration heat warnings, which are issued when maximum temperatures are forecast to e xceed 35 °C. Furthermore, with the assumption that each meteorological Table 1 The rates of increase and linear regression results by year for annual extreme maximum temperature, mean maximum temperature in mid-summer (Jul–Aug), and hot days at urban, suburban, and exurban sites Sites Yearly extreme maximum temperature Mean maximum temperature in mid-summer (Jul–Aug) Hot days Rate of increase (K / year) Urban Suburban Exurban XuHui MinHang BaoShan PuDong JiaDing QingPuChongMing NanHui JinShan SongJiang FengXian R2 p Rate of increase (K / year) R2 p Rate of increase (days / year) R2 p 0. 085 0. 049 0. 066 0. 067 0. 062 0. 051 0. 035 0. 029 0. 013 0. 034 0. 009 0. 389 0. 172 0. 271 0. 204 0. 241 0. 158 0. 090 0. 053 0. 013 0. 076 0. 004 0. 0001 0. 0181 0. 0022 0. 0095 0. 0043 0. 0244 0. 0918 0. 2053 0. 5409 0. 1276 0. 7196 0. 073 0. 051 0. 054 0. 054 0. 049 0. 045 0. 038 0. 028 0. 024 0. 034 0. 020 0. 240 0. 150 0. 136 0. 158 0. 128 0. 112 0. 082 0. 064 0. 042 0. 070 0 . 030 0. 0044 0. 0282 0. 0376 0. 0240 0. 0448 0. 0609 0. 1138 0. 1623 0. 2603 0. 1442 0. 3408 0. 64 0. 29 0. 40 . 34 0. 41 0. 28 0. 10 0. 09 0. 07 0. 20 0. 08 0. 388 0. 168 0. 278 0. 279 0. 272 0. 161 0. 070 0. 074 0. 026 0. 090 0. 036 0. 0001 0. 0197 0. 0019 0. 0018 0. 0021 0. 0229 0. 1427 0. 1305 0. 3817 0. 0952 0. 2950 Statistically significant slopes at 95% confidence level (p ? 0. 05) are in bold Int J Biometeorol (2010) 54:75–84 78 Table 2 The average number of hot days and the occurrence of different heat wave durations at urban, suburban, and exurban sites in Shanghai (1975–2004) Sites Hot days (days / year) Heat wave duration ?3 days XuHui MinHang BaoShan PuDong JiaDing QingPu ChongMing NanHui JinShan SongJiangFengXian Exurban observation site represents its entire area or district, we classify days in which more than eight of the sites experienced maximum temperatures above 35 °C as â€Å"largescale hot days†, thus covering 59. 6–82. 6% of the total area of Shanghai. The consistency of hot day occurrence among the 11 sites has been plotted in Fig. 5. All deaths recorded between 1998 and 2004 for all regions of Shanghai were obtained from the Shanghai Municipal Center for Disease Control and Prevention. These data consist of the daily mortality totals of each district for all causes of death and cover the summer study period.Excess deaths are calculated by subtracting a baseline death rate from the observed daily mortality value. Numerous methods have been identified in the literature for calculating the baseline mortality (Gosling et al. 2009), and here, we adopt a 30-day moving average for the same year (Rooney et al. 1998; Dessai 2002, 2003; Gosling et al. 2007). >10 days 18 12 11 8 9 9 5 2 6 8 2 9 4 8 1 5 4 2 1 3 4 2 5 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 Results Warming trends at the urban, suburban and exurban sites As demonstrated in Table 1, there are different linear arming trends in the different areas (city center, suburban, an d exurban areas) of Shanghai over the last 30 years (1975–2004), covering the yearly extreme maximum temperature, the average maximum temperature from July through August, and the number of hot days during the 2 Tu-s 1. 5 1 0. 5 0 May Tu-s ?7 days 39 25 22 18 27 26 9 7 14 21 8 11. 2 7. 4 7. 5 5. 2 7. 6 7. 7 3. 1 2. 7 5. 2 6. 4 3. 7 Heat Island Intensity ( K ) Urban Suburban ?5 days Tu-e June July 1. 4 Tu-e 1. 2 1 0. 8 0. 6 0. 4 y = -0. 001x 2 + 0. 0523x + 0. 1132 R2 = 0. 6951 0. 2 0 1975 October 2. 00 y = 2E-05x 2 + 0. 0411x + 0. 147 R2 = 0. 7704 1979 1983 987 1991 Year 1995 1999 2003 Fig. 2 The variation of urban heat island intensity [in terms of the difference of daily maximum temperature between the urban center and suburban sites (? Tu-s), and that between urban and exurban (? Tu-e) sites] from 1975 to 2004 Heat Island Intensity ( K ) Heat Island Intensity (K) 1. 6 September Month 2 1. 8 August -0. 5 1. 50 1. 00 0. 50 0. 00 May June July August September October -0. 50 M onth Fig. 3 The mean heat island intensity [in terms of the difference of daily maximum temperature between the urban center and suburban sites (? Tu-s), and that between urban and exurban stations (?Tu-e)] by month from 1975 through 2004. Error bars indicate  ±1 SD Int J Biometeorol (2010) 54:75–84 79 Fig. 4 The diurnal variation of the temperature difference between the city center (XuHui) and suburban(JiaDing), and various exurban sites (ChongMing, FengXian, JinShan, SongJiang) over 24 h in summer (June–August, 2005–2007) summer. Significant trends, using a 95% confidence level (p 35 °C) and the proportion of largescale hot days (>35 °C at eight or more stations) during the five hottest years on record the urban center and the suburban sites (? Tu-s), and that between the urban center and the exurban sites (? Tu-e) Fig. 2). From the 1970s to the mid-1980s, the UHI was much less pronounced, with an average difference in daily maximum summer temperature o f 0. 2–0. 4 K between the city center and its surroundings. However, these temperature differences increased during the period of study, particularly between the city center and the exurban locations. In fact, beginning in the mid-1980s, there is a distinct deviation between the UHI intensities of the exurban and the suburban sites. While the temperature difference of urban-exurban areas rose further to 1. 6 K, differences between the urban and suburban sites remained at approximately 0. K. This disparity is likely due to the rapid expansion of Shanghai into the suburban regions beginning in the mid-1980s. The UHI intensity was strongest in July during the summer months, where the average UHI intensity reached 0. 9 K between urban and exurban areas (? Tu-e), and 0. 6 K between urban and suburban areas (? Tu-s) (Fig. 3). Furthermore, the diurnal variation of the heat island intensity derived from the six automatic weather stations located in the urban (XuHui), suburban (JiaDin g), and exurban sites (ChongMing, FengXian, JinShan, SongJiang) in summer (June through August), 2005–2007, shows that he heat island intensity is more pronounced in the daytime than that in the night (Fig. 4). The highest value in the region of 0. 5–2. 0 K occurs at noon or in the afternoon, corresponding approximately to the time in which the daily maximum temperature is reached. The urban heat island and heat waves As a result of increased temperatures within the urban locales, the UHI may affect the number of hot days as well as the duration of heat waves, potentially increasing the risk of mortality from heat stress. The yearly average number of hot days and the total number of heat waves with different urations over the research period (1975–2004) at different locations in Shanghai are listed in Table 2. Not surprisingly, the largest average value of annual hot days is 11. 2 days per year in the urban site (XuHui), while fewer hot days occur in the exurban sites such as ChongMing, NanHui, or FengXian. Similarly, heat wave duration is also impacted by the UHI, so that the longest duration heat waves (for example, a heat wave with at least 10 consecutive hot days) usually occurred in the urban area. There were five such events at the urban location (XuHui) with only one event recorded t the suburban stations (MinXing, BaoShan, JiaDing). In order to discern whether increasing numbers of hot days are attributable to a regional climate warming or to an expanding UHI, we examined the five hottest years (1978, 1983, 1988, 1998, and 2003) and analyzed the consistency of hot day occurrence among the 11 sites. This was done to 80 determine the frequency of â€Å"large-scale hot days† in the investigation area during these years. Figure 5 illustrates a decreasing trend of the proportion of the large-scale hot days corresponding with an increasing number of hot days. For example, at least 1 of the 11 stations in Shanghai eported a hot day 16 times in 1983, and among these there were 13 large-scale hot days, accounting for 81. 3%. In 2003, however, there were 45 hot days reported but only 29. 5% of these were large-scale hot days. Thus, it seems that the growing UHI increases the number of hot days around the city center, but large-scale hot days are not increasing. This provides strong evidence that the warming is local in nature, caused almost entirely by the UHI, and not as a result of a larger, regional warming pattern. The urban heat island and excess death The relationships between heat and human health are ummarized in Table 3, which illustrates the excess mortality rate, the number of heat waves, and the average maximum temperature for each heat wave from 1998 to 2004 in each region. Population-adjusted excess mortality in each region, along with UHI intensity, has been plotted for each year in Fig. 6. The excess deaths in the central urban region are higher than those in the suburban and exurban sites, which coincide well with heat island intensity, especially in the two severe heat waves in 1998 and 2003 (Tan et al. 2004, 2007). For example, with the 1998 heat wave, the excess mortality rate in the urban area is about 27. /100,000, compared to only 7/100,000 in the exurban districts. Furthermore, a comparison between excess deaths and the spatial coverage of the two heat waves in 1998 and 2003 (Fig. 7) shows that the extent of high temperatures played an important role in the number of excess deaths. In general, the more stations that reported hot days, the higher the number of excess deaths. In 1998, Shanghai experienced long duration, large-scale hot days with more than nine districts experiencing temperatures above 35 °C for nine consecutive days from August 8 to 16. As a result, excess deaths increased sharply with a maximum value of 53 deaths observed on August 16. On the other hand, in 2003, there were frequent hot days, often with a large number of consecutive days, but these heat waves were not often experienced by a large number of stations. Thus, the spatial coverage of the 2003 event was much smaller than that observed in 1998, resulting in fewer deaths. Discussion The urban heat island effect is among the most welldocumented impacts of human activity on local climate. As Int J Biometeorol (2010) 54:75–84 large-scale climate change continues, the UHI is very likely to exacerbate the warming, resulting in more frequent and ore intense heat waves (Wilby 2003). Research on the UHI has typically focused on tropical or mid-latitude cities for the dual purposes of understanding the dynamics of the energy balance in the urban boundary layer and its application to issues related to urban pollution, energy conservation, and the prevention of heat-related health problems or deaths (Buechley et al. 1972; Smoyer 1998). Here, the comparison between meteorological monitoring stations both inside and around the city of Shanghai revealed the large impact of the urban heat island effect on temperature, heat waves, and human health.The results demonstrate that the meteorological sites (city center and its surroundings) have experienced different degrees of warming over the period of record as a direct result of increasing urbanization and a more pronounced heat island. Additionally, we find that the hottest days (above 35 °C), as well as prolonged heat waves, are more likely to occur in urban locales. The UHI is often referred to as a nighttime phenomenon with the highest values of the UHI intensity occurring between midnight and early morning, especially in winter. This has been documented in the United States, Italy, and eyond (Basu and Samet 2002; de’Donato et al. 2008), highlighting that the major differences between urban and rural areas were measured during the night. However, for Shanghai, our results show that the heat island is often more pronounced in the daytime during the summer, with the highest urban–rural d ifferences ranging from 0. 5 to 2. 0 K at noon or in the afternoon, coinciding with the timing of maximum daily temperature. The increased thermal loads found in urban areas may be a direct factor for heightened levels of human mortality (Clarke and Bach 1971; Jones et al. 1982; Conti et al. 2005).Additionally, previous studies note that virtually all causes of mortality increase during extreme heat waves, including respiratory failure and circulatory system failure from heart attack or stroke. The results of this study demonstrate that heat-related mortality (all-cause deaths above the baseline) is often much higher in the inner city than in outlying environs during heat waves, coinciding with heat island intensity. Inhabitants of urban areas may experience sustained thermal stress both day and night as city surfaces often heat up quickly during the day but are slow to cool at night (Sheridan and Dolney 2003).There is emerging evidence that the urban population shows greater sensit ivity to heat compared to those in rural regions. For example, analyses of the 1995 Chicago heat wave have shown that the relative risk for a heat-related hospital admission in the city was nearly two times higher compared to the suburbs (Rydman et al. 1999). Similar results were found in 2003, where heat wave mortality was greater in 2 20/7– 24/7 36. 1 ?2. 51 2 19/7– 31/7 36. 5 0. 93 4 22/8– 26/8 36. 1 2. 57 4 19/7– 6/8 36. 6 4. 32 2 16/7– 31/7 36. 2 3. 33 Heat waves Longest duration Tmax( °C) Excess mortality rate (1/100,000)Heat waves Longest duration Tmax( °C) Excess mortality rate (1/100,000) Heat waves Longest duration Tmax( °C) Excess mortality rate (1/100,000) Heat waves Longest duration Tmax( °C) Excess mortality rate (1/100,000) Heat waves Longest duration Tmax( °C) Excess mortality rate (1/100,000) 2000 2004 2003 2002 2001 1999 3 7/8–17/8 36. 8 27. 30 0 Heat waves Longest duration Tmax( °C) Excess mortality rate (1/100 ,000) Heat waves Longest duration Tmax( °C) Excess mortality rate (1/100,000) 1998 Urban Item Year 36 5. 60 36. 1 6. 39 2 19/7– 31/7 4 28/7– 3/8 2 20/7– 24/7 35. 3 2. 29 3 25/7– 29/7 35. 7 ?0. 89 0 2 8/8– 17/8 6. 9 18. 20 0 MinHang 35. 8 ?0. 23 36. 9 5. 85 3 17/7– 7/30 2 21/7– 29/7 1 20/7– 23/7 36. 8 ?0. 25 1 28/6– 2/7 36. 1 2. 29 0 2 7/8– 15/8 36. 4 18. 99 1 9/9– 11/9 35. 3 0. 40 BaoShan 35. 9 1. 00 36 1. 64 3 20/7– 25/7 2 20/7– 24/7 35. 7 0. 91 2 28/6– 2/7 36. 1 0. 95 1 14/7– 16/7 36. 4 0. 41 4 19/7– 25/7 1 8/8– 16/8 37 15. 82 0 PuDong 36. 2 2. 89 36. 3 17. 39 3 17/7– 1/8 4 19/7– 4/8 1 20/7 – 23/7 36 0. 41 3 28/6– 2/7 36. 2 4. 82 0 1 8/8– 16/8 36. 4 13. 08 0 JiaDing 35. 8 ?0. 57 35. 7 1. 42 2 20/7– 25/7 1 25/7– 29/7 0 0 0 1 8/8– 15/8 35. 9 9. 21 0 ChongMing 0 0 0 0 0 2 10/8– 16/8 36. 2 12. 81 0 NanHu iTable 3 Summary statistics of excess mortality rate and mean maximum temperature in heat waves, broken down by region and year 36. 2 3. 41 0 2 28/7– 30/7 1 21/7– 24/7 35. 4 0. 94 1 29/6– 2/7 36. 1 1. 89 0 1 8/8– 17/8 36. 3 8. 01 0 JinShan 36 0. 22 36. 6 5. 89 2 17/7– 31/7 4 28/7– 3/8 1 21/7– 23/7 35. 9 1. 09 2 28/6– 3/7 36. 4 2. 85 0 2 7/8– 16/8 36. 5 12. 51 0 QingPu 36. 5 ?0. 39 27/8– 30/8 35. 9 0. 00 1 23/7– 25/7 36. 2 1. 56 1 28/7– 4/8 36. 2 3. 16 2 17/7– 31/7 0 0 0 2 9/8– 16/8 35. 8 7. 00 0 FengXian 3 1 21/7– 24/7 35. 8 0. 20 1 29/6– 1/7 36. 1 3. 82 0 1 8/8– 17/8 36. 4 18. 15 0 SongJiang Int J Biometeorol (2010) 54:75–84 1 Int J Biometeorol (2010) 54:75–84 82 30 exposure to heat in the city center, resulting in elevated levels of heat-related mortality in urban regions. This study was subject to several limitations. First, many approaches such as absolute threshold temperature (Huynen et al. 2001), relative threshold temperature (Hajat et al. 2002), and synoptic climatological approaches (Sheridan 2002; Sheridan and Kalkstein 2004) can also be used to define heat waves. Although our definition is somewhat arbitrary, it was chosen to correspond with the Chinese Meteorological Administration’s heat warnings, which are ssued when maximum temperatures are forecast to exceed 35 °C. Thus, Chinese residents are more familiar with the definition used here. Second, the effects of the UHI on heat-related mortality are multifaceted, and we did not examine data measuring air pollution, other meteorological factors such as cloud cover or humidity, or the potential impacts of socioeconomic status or other social variables. Therefore, no confounding effects were evaluated. Previous research indicates that human mortality is impacted by both ambient meteorological conditions and atmospheric pollutant levels.The stagnant atmospheric conditions common during heat waves can trap pollutants in urban areas, exacerbating the negative impacts of the heat wave 1998 2000 2001 20 2003 15 2004 10 5 0 -5 3. 5 4 4. 5 Fig. 6 The excess mortality rate and the heat island intensity for heat waves in Shanghai urban regions compared to suburban areas in Switzerland (Grize et al. 2005). Our previous investigation revealed that observed differences in heat-related mortality between two severe heat waves in 1998 and 2003 could be traced to the longevity of the heat; prolonged exposure to heat is more stressful to human health than isolated hot days (Tan et al. 007). Here, we confirm that the UHI serves to enhance the prolonged (a) 1998 20 500 The number of the sites with Tmax? 35 °C The number of the sites with Tmax? 35 °C 16 400 excess deaths 300 8 200 4 100 0 0 9-8 9-12 9-4 8-31 8-27 8-23 8-19 8-15 8-7 8-11 8-3 7-30 7-26 7-22 7-18 7-14 6-28 -200 6-24 -8 6-20 -100 6-16 -4 excess deaths 12 Date (b) 2003 500 20 The number of t he sites with Tmax? 35 °C 16 The number of the sites with Tmax? 35 °C 400 excess deaths 300 8 200 4 100 0 0 Date 9-12 9-8 9-4 8-31 8-27 8-23 8-19 8-15 8-11 8-7 8-3 7-30 7-26 7-22 -200 6-28 -8 6-24 -100 6-20 -4 excess deaths 12 6-16 Fig. 7 The number of excess eaths versus the number of stations reporting hot days during the summers of 1998 (a) and 2003 (b) 7-18 3 7-14 2. 5 7-6 2 7-10 1. 5 Urban Heat Island Intensity(K) 7-10 1 7-2 0. 5 7-6 0 7-2 excess mortality(1/100000) 25 Int J Biometeorol (2010) 54:75–84 (Anderson et al. 1996; Piver et al. 1999; Johnson et al. 2005). Air pollution such as ozone and PM10 compound the heat–mortality relationship, and previous research suggests that between 21 and 38% of the excess deaths observed during the summer 2003 European heat wave were attributable to these pollutants (Stedman 2004). However, it remains difficult to separate the impacts of eat and pollution on human health, and it is possible that some of the heightened urb an mortality totals in this study were partially a result of elevated concentrations of airborne pollutants found in the city center. Conclusion There is no doubt that the urban heat island (UHI) has a profound impact on human health. The UHI serves to enhance the intensity of heat waves, which in turn adversely affects human health due to an increased exposure to extreme thermal conditions. As a result, heatrelated mortality is found to be higher in the city center compared to suburban locales. 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Economic Problems

Major economic problems in the Philippines are very similar to the economic problems in other underdeveloped countries. Some of the major pinpointed problems are the import-export imbalance, causing those who specialize in trade and make their living off of imported and exported goods to lose money. The imbalance causes families that are forced to survive off of this small income to wonder if they are going to eat the next week or not. One week there are plenty of orders to keep a family and company afloat; the next, there are no orders, causing the family and companies to suffer.Decline of the Philippine peso, which is the value of the money in the Philippines. The lack of business versus the amount of pesos in the small country simply do not add up. In order for families to purchase anything in the Philippines, they have to have several hundred pesos to equal the value of what ever it is they are attempting to purchase. The pesos are equal to less than that of the Mexican peso. Rel iance on remittances. This is when the companies in the Phillips attempt to sell and distribute goods over seas, with other workers from the countries.The Filipinos work in a different country and forward monies back to the homeland, where the company is based out of. This prevents the countries – the foreign and home – from taking out excessive taxes and fees for importing and exporting goods. These are just some of the major problems concerning the Philippines. More information on this country can be found at www. buzzle. com. Individuals continue to suffer daily, and struggle throughout daily life. There are several charities set up through the United States in an attempt to assist these families that desperately need help with simple survival skills. Economic Problems Major economic problems in the Philippines are very similar to the economic problems in other underdeveloped countries. Some of the major pinpointed problems are the import-export imbalance, causing those who specialize in trade and make their living off of imported and exported goods to lose money. The imbalance causes families that are forced to survive off of this small income to wonder if they are going to eat the next week or not.One week there are plenty of orders to keep a family and company afloat; the next, there are no orders, causing the family and companies to suffer. Decline of the Philippine peso, which is the value of the money in the Philippines. The lack of business versus the amount of pesos in the small country simply do not add up. In order for families to purchase anything in the Philippines, they have to have several hundred pesos to equal the value of what ever it is they are attempting to purchase.The pesos are equal to less than that of the Mexican peso. Reli ance on remittances. This is when the companies in the Phillips attempt to sell and distribute goods over seas, with other workers from the countries. The Filipinos work in a different country and forward monies back to the homeland, where the company is based out of. This prevents the countries – the foreign and home – from taking out excessive taxes and fees for importing and exporting goods.These are just some of the major problems concerning the Philippines. More information on this country can be found at www. buzzle. com. Individuals continue to suffer daily, and struggle throughout daily life. There are several charities set up through the United States in an attempt to assist these families that desperately need help with simple survival skills. For more information, please see:www. reference. com

Black Holes Essays (840 words) - Black Holes, Astrophysics, Galaxies

Black Holes Essays (840 words) - Black Holes, Astrophysics, Galaxies Black Holes On December 3, 1995, astronomers using the Hubble Space Telescope identified a black hole in the galaxy NGC 4621, located 100 million light-years from Earth in the direction of the constellation Virgo. This is the second super-massive black hole that astronomers using the Hubble Space Telescope have found. Astronomers believe that the mass of this black hole is about 1.2 billion times the mass of our sun, but it is concentrated in a space that is not any bigger than our solar system There are two puzzling questions that astronomers are trying to answer. The black hole is fueled by the galaxy and its 800 light-year-wide spiral disk of dust. Before the discovery of this black hole, astronomers did not think that there was any dust in elliptical galaxies like NGC 4261. Currently they believe that the disk of dust is the remnant of a smaller galaxy that fell into the core of NGC 4261. The black hole will swallow up the gas from the smaller galaxy over the next 100 million years. Researchers believe that while the gas is being swallowed by the black hole, the process will produce some amazing fireworks. The second puzzling question that astronomers are trying to answer is why isn?t the black hole at the center of the galaxy? According to images from the Hubble Space Telescope, the black hole is 20 light-years from the center of the galaxy, but since the black hole is so massive it is hard to explain how it could have been moved. One idea is that the black hole is moving itself. Some astronomers think that the disk of dust serves as a "fuel tank." The black hole sucks in the material which is absorbed by gravity, compressed, and heated to tens of millions of degrees. This theory would explain why radio telescopes have observed radio jets, or hot gas exhausts from the black hole?s area. The exhaust may be pushing the black hole across space, as a jet engine gives thrust to a plane. According to Ted Bunn, an astronomer at Berkley University, "A black hole is a region of space that has so much mass concentrated in it that there is no way for a nearby object to escape its gravitational pull, not even light." So, what does that mean? The following example will explain the nature of a black hole. A ball is thrown up into the air. It rises for a while, but it eventually falls. If the ball is thrown fast enough it is able to escape the gravitational field and continue rising. This is called the "escape velocity." The escape velocity depends on the mass of the planet, which affects the gravitational field. A object on Earth would have to travel at 25,000 m.p.h. to escape the gravitational pull of Earth. Now imagine an object with a gravitational pull so large and escape velocity so high that even visible light could not escape it. This is a black hole. How are black holes formed? To our best knowledge, black holes are created at the end of a very large star?s life cycle. The star collapses into a white dwarf, which is the smallest, dimmest, and hottest of all stars. Matter is packing continually tighter and tighter together and gravity is increasing. The white dwarf will collapse into itself when it runs out of fuel, thus creating a black hole. Therefore only very massive stars can form black holes because only large stars have enough mass and gravitational pull to collapse into itself. What are the parts of a black hole? There are two main parts to a black hole. The first one is the event horizon and the second is the singularity. The event horizon is the spherical surface that marks the boundary of the black hole. You can pass into the black hole through the horizon, but you cannot pass back out of it. Once you have crossed the horizon, you are doomed to "hit" singularity. The singularity is the center of the black hole and all that astronomers know about it is that the gravitational pull is so large that anything reaching it would be torn to pieces. Astronomers are continuing to

Amazon Ads For Authors Two Case Studies Showing That They Do Work

Amazon Ads For Authors Two Case Studies Showing That They Do Work Amazon Ads for Authors: Two Case Studies Showing They Do Work Amazon ads have been the talk of indie author town since Amazon opened its AMS platform to all KDP users in 2016. While Facebook ads become increasingly competitive, as Mark Dawson already predicted on this blog back in 2015, Amazon has made huge improvements to their advertising platform, and are progressively becoming one of the most favored channels for marketing a book.Like any other advertising platform, the AMS platform comes with its own challenges and learning curve. And like any other platform, success largely depends on data analysis and iteration. In this post, we’ll analyze two case studies (one fiction, one nonfiction) and try to understand what these authors are doing right.A brief intro to Amazon AMS adsBefore we get into the case studies, it’s important to have a look at what Amazon ads do. If you’re already familiar with them - or have taken the Reedsy Learning course on Amazon ads for authors, or Dave Chesson's video training - you can skip th is part.When judging any advertising platform, you should think about four crucial things:Placement: where do the ads show up?Targeting: how can I decide whom the ads get shown to?Cost: when am I being charged? What is the minimum I need to invest?Analytics: how do I know if my ads are working or not?PlacementThere are two types of ads you can try on Amazon:Sponsored Product: these ads show up on search result listings and other books’ product pages (below the â€Å"also boughts†).The main thing to note is that his targeting is automatic.â€Å"Here’s my logic: Amazon knows! It’s creepy, but Amazon knows what you’re shopping for, what you’ve been looking at, what your interests are and how best to deliver the right advert at the right time.†For more insights into Joseph’s campaigns, take our free course on Amazon ads! Two of the 10 lessons are written by him and he shares everything about his process. On top of that, Joseph's a freelance book marketer on Reedsy. If you’re a non-fiction author looking to self-publish or to dabble with AMS ads, you can get in touch with him and seek his help.Takeaways for nonfiction authors:Try Sponsored Product ads first;If your book’s metadata is well-optimized, go for automatic targeting;Even if the ACoS isn't the best, consider the number of impressions you're getting and the impact in brand awareness.What's your experience with the AMS ad platform been like?   Share your insights with us below. If you have any questions for Annelie and Joseph, feel free to ask in the comments as well!

Taking a business idea of your own. Conduct an Osterwalder style Essay

Taking a business idea of your own. Conduct an Osterwalder style business model analysis of that idea. Generate a preferred busi - Essay Example Business plans discuss every aspect from marketing to investment, from target market to production/ services, from human resource to workforce that would be required to be employed by the organization. It is not only the small businesses or medium sized organizations that would require the business plans in order to minimize the risk for them. Larger organizations even multinational organizations are seen often designing and working on marketing or business plans before starting every new project or business. The most important role that the business plans play for the MNEs is that in this era of globalization they are always focusing on expansion and growth into new markets with potential. Thus before entering the market, starting operations and making any kind of investment a business plan is designed that would give complete required details that would be necessary for making the decisions. Business plans often make it much easier for the organization’s management to make d ecisions that are optimum and rational as they are making decision on the basis of researched material that is authentic and allows them to evaluate the idea completely however unforeseen circumstances are an exception. In today’s corporate world competition has increased many folds continuous development and innovation have become requirement in order to sustain in the market. Therefore it is not the liquid assets of the company, Non-current assets, finance or capital available that would ensure the competitive advantage of the business or the organization. it is the intellectual capital that would gain the success in the market thus business plans or market plans even if not eventually used for making their desired decision present an asset and research material that would serve for the purpose of the organization and its management anytime. Different business models have been presented that can be used for designing the business plans. For our current business plan for whi ch the business idea of â€Å"Food Cart Services† have been chosen (Sommer, 2012).  . In order to evaluate the idea through a business plan Osterwalder style business model analysis would be used that presents an in depth information (Osterwalder et al2010). It provides a structure for proper documentation and texting of the business ideas whether for the development of new or documentation of existing. The business idea that has been chosen is vast thus osterwalder business model doesn’t allow the information to lose focus thus there is not any unnecessary explanation or information presented in the model (Verstraete & Jouison-Laffitte, 2011). Business model provides a proper structure thus serves a purpose of strategic management for the business or organization. Below the report presents complete business plan of the â€Å"Food Cart Services† following the structure given under Osterwalder Business model: Infrastructure The initial decision of any business operation is regarding its infrastructure. It implies that what would be the resources required, personnel required, public relations or the contacts would be necessary for running the operations for example existing suppliers in the market, raw material and other production equipment providers. Besides this business relations infrastructure also determines the capabilities and set of skills that would be necessary

Theories argue Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Theories argue - Essay Example Three most important and frequently addressed theories related to the aging process are Theory of disengagement, Activity Theory and Continuity Theory (Bengtson, Silverstein, & Putney, 2009). This researcher finds that Activity Theory has defined the process of aging more effectively as compared to other two theories. The theory was developed in 1953 by an American sociologist Havighurst (Schulz, 2006). This theory holds that to remain lively and participate in societal activities are key factors of satisfaction for aging people. Physical and intellectual activities are important for successful aging. The theory proposes that in order to maintain a positive self-image, older members need to develop new interests, roles, hobbies, and relationships (Schulz-Aellen, 1997). This theory would explain adequately why aging people feel encouraged continue with their middle-age lifestyles by denying the limitations of old age and why they make attempts to sustain that lifestyle over a longer duration. According Havighurst activity is always preferable to inactivity since it increases the chances of the well-being of personality on a number of levels. This theory also explains why post-industrial society allowed its older members to participate in meaningful activities. The theory incorporates an improvement in the general health and prosperity of older people. In contrast to the Activity Theory, the Disengagement theory comes across as a more controversial theory. According to this theory aging is process of regular withdrawal between society and the subject aging individual. The theory holds that in growing older, withdrawal or disengagement can be considered to be a natural or universal process. In all cultures and societies this process is acceptable to elders. According to this theory there should be a social equilibrium that will promote self-reflection for elders. Old members of the society should be free from societal

CORE COMPETENCIES PAPER Dissertation Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

CORE COMPETENCIES PAPER - Dissertation Example (Holmes) Public health is "the science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life and promoting health through the organized efforts and informed choices of society, organizations, public and private, communities and individuals" (Winslow, 1920). It focuses on improving health of communities, groups of people and preventing from diseases. It may include curing from diseases, finding ways to prevent from them, making people aware of the diseases and taking measures to contribute to healthy lifestyles. There can be many reasons for different diseases. Some are sexually transmitted diseases like HIV AIDS, many are infectious like small pox, and few are caused due to lack of providing medicines at early stage of life like polio, whereas some are caused by environmental hazards. Environmental Health Hazards At every interaction with the environment, we are in contact with numerous health hazards that are caused by different pollutants and harmful substances. What we feed to our enviro nment is given back to us in the form of diseases and other health hazards. Environmental hazards are caused by chemical waste from industries, harmful substances used in these industries, land degeneration, ozone depletion, nuclear issues, over population, harmful substance used at our homes, poor sanitation, and emission of harmful gases such as carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide. Domestic and hazardous waste cause serious diseases. These wastes are divided into two categories: municipal waste by domestic activities & industrial waste by industrial activities. Municipal waste causes problem for ordinary human being if it is not disposed off in the right way. Industrial waste can cause damage to the workers in the industry as well as common man. Water contamination again causes water-borne diseases that might lead to morbidity and mortality. Clean drinking water is rare in the world. Most people do not enjoy clean water and have to quench their thirst with contaminated and polluted water. This is a very increasing concern of environmental health in entire world. Another way of causing environment related health problems is the air toxicants. Huge amounts of carbon Dioxide, carbon monoxide, and sulfur dioxide in our air are harmful for our health. A large part of air pollutants is caused by the emissions from automobiles. Besides these, in our everyday life we see consumer products full of harmful substances. Lead is one example. Lead is present in many consumer products especially paint. The manufacturers of these products put such harmful substances without realizing the high level of human interaction with these products. (Nweke & William, 2009) Children come into direct contact with environmental toxicants such as lead, methyl mercury, tobacco and other pollutants. These pollutants enter children’s bodies via placental transfer during fetal growth, inhalation of dust, breast milk and other dietary sources during early childhood. (Landrigan et al, 19 98) One of the threats from these environmental hazards is asthma in children. It is more common in children because they have smaller airways. Asthma Asthma causes the airways

The bullwhip effect

The bullwhip effect Erratic shifts up and down the supply chain is known as the bullwhip effect, and is one of the major difficulties in properly setting inventory levels in various parts of the supply chain (Turban, Leidner, McLean, Wetherbe, 2008). Economists call it a bullwhip because even small increases in demand can cause a big snap in the need for parts and materials further down the supply chain. It has the domino effect, because of the spontaneous demand along the supply chain. This may be an insignificant problem for any one customer, but for the supplier it is huge and costly. Some of the things that contribute to this are price fluctuation, poor demand forecast, order batching, and rationing within the supply chain (Turban, Leidner, McLean, Wetherbe, p.360). Actual demand for a product is influenced by several factors such as competition, prices, weather conditions, technological developments, and consumers general confidence. These would be considered external and unmanageable factors. There are other uncertainties involved as well that can have an effect on the supply chain such as problems in delivery time due to production machine failures. Techniques to lessen or curtail the bullwhip effect would be to understand and recognize who or what is suggesting the variations in demand. Is it the retailer, manufacturer, the customer, or the distributor? The key element to eliminating this setback is being aware of where the demand changes are beginning. Techniques that can be used or put into place to reduce the bullwhip effect is sharing information along the supply chain, Vendor Managed Inventory (VMI), and managing e-business. The most obvious way to reduce the bullwhip effect is to improve communication and forecasting along the supply chain (ehow.com). Master Data Management (MDM) is can be looked at to integrate all data in an organization at the highest level, both internally and externally. One of the most notable examples of information sharing is between large manufacturers and retailers (Turban, Leidner, McLean, Wetherbe, p.307). Inventory if properly managed, it can increase profits and efficiency. The implementation of a Vendor-Managed Inventory (VMI) initiative would be a key factor in improving and controlling the bullwhip effect. VMI indicates that the vendor, usually a distributor, maintains the inventories for manufacturer or buyer and in turn will reduce warehouse costs for suppliers. VMI alleviates uncertainty o f demand and replenishment decisions can be made according to operating needs, and also has heightened awareness of trends in demand. E-commerce brings about new opportunities to improve the performance of the supply chain. The primary advantages of internet utilization are speed, decreased costs, the potential to shorten the supply chain, and flexibility. Electronic marketplaces provide for more efficient resource allocation, better information flow and dissemination on products and services in the supply chain. Electronic data interchange (EDI) can be implemented to help supply chain mangers in reducing misleading signals sent from sales and marketing (distribution). Enterprise resource planning (ERP) is one of the most successful tools for managing supply chains. ERP is software that integrates the planning, management, and use of all sources in the entire enterprise (Turban, Leidner, McLean, Wetherbe, p.2008). The major objective is to integrate all departments and functional information flow across a company onto a single computer system that can serve all of the enterprises needs. A plan created from an SCM system that allows companies to quickly assess the impact of their actions on the entire supply chain, including customer demand, can only be done with the integration of ERP software. ERP and SCM can help alleviate the bullwhip effect across the supply chain by having a shared understanding of what needs to get done, managing the variations in the organization, communication among all thats involved especially top management, and having single control of replenishment or VMI can overcome inflated demand forecasts. Long lead times should also be reduced where it is reasonably beneficial. References: Understanding the BullWhip Effect in Supply Chains. Retrieved March 18, 2010, from http://sloanreview.mit.edu/improvisations/2010/01/27/understanding-the-bullwhip-effect-in-supply-chains/. Turban, E., Leidner, D., McLean, E., Wetherbe, J. (2008). Information technology for management: Transforming organizations in the digital economy. (6th ed.) Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley Sons. http://www.ehow.com/how_5154541_reduce-bullwhip-effect.html

Ancient Egyptian Religious Architecture :: Ancient Egypt Egyptian History

Ancient Egyptian Religious Architecture One of the greatest cultural achievements of Ancient Egypt was undoubtedly in their architecture associated with religion. "Temples, tombs and pyramids - all have witnessed this earth for thousands of years. What better than to say that these architectural achievements show us that Egypt's greatest virtue lay in its architecture" (Fumeaux:11, 1964) When one travels to Egypt, what does he/she see - pyramid after temple after tomb, each standing the test of time. One stands out - they are all associated with religious beliefs, they all have stood unmoving for thousands of years, and they all involve mechanical genius- the moving of colossal stones without the use of the wheel. The finest example such mechanics is shown in the construction of the revered pyramid. These three factors, all belonging to the religious architecture of ancient Egypt, do nothing else but prove its greatness. Egypt's grand architectural design was a result of the religious values and beliefs that were in place at the time. Thousands of years ago, 'Ancient Egypt accepted the challenge of reeds and swamps, hot sands and floods, and build the 'first' nation' (Romer:75, 1982). There were few things to impress themselves upon the Egyptian mind; their psychological impact however was immense. There was the Nile itself, source of all life, there was the mysterious regularity of the Sun, Moon and stars; there was fertility and death. It was out of fear and mystery of these things that "...the Egyptians made their complex heirachy of Gods, and their strange religion. In the service of that religion they made their architecture" (Romer: 75,1982). Thus, the art and architecture of Ancient Egypt stemmed directly from their religion. Egyptian theology, with its deified pharaohs and strange animal-headed gods, was complicated, but the most important belief was that survival after death depended upon the preservation of the body. This belief would influence the architectural design of the tomb, where the corpse was ultimately sealed (Silverman:142, 1997). Immortality was only for privileged royal and priestly beings (Stierlin:54, 1983).This implies that their tombs would be somewhat prestigious and not just and ordinary burial site. At the day of resurrection the Ka or soul would re-enter the dead body; this meant that it must be there, intact, ready for that moment. It followed logically, that 'once the corpse was embalmed or mummified, it must be preserved in an impregnable tomb.

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The brain and spinal cord are made up of many cells, including neurons and glial cells. Neurons are cells that send and receive electro-chemical signals to and from the brain and nervous system. There are about 100 billion neurons in the brain. There are many more glial cells; they provide support functions for the neurons, and are far more numerous than neurons. There are many type of neurons. They vary in size from 4 microns (. 004 mm) to 100 microns (. 1 mm) in diameter. Their length varies from a fraction of an inch to several feet.Neurons  are nerve cells that transmit nerve signals to and from the brain at up to 200 mph. The neuron consists of a  cell body (or soma)  with branching  dendrites(signal receivers) and a projection called an  axon, which conduct the nerve signal. At the other end of the axon, the  axon terminals  transmit the electro-chemical signal across a  synapse  (the gap between the axon terminal and the receiving cell). The word â€Å"neuro n† was coined by the German scientist Heinrich Wilhelm Gottfried von Waldeyer-Hartz in 1891 (he also coined the term â€Å"chromosome†).The  axon, a long extension of a nerve cell, and take information away from the cell body. Bundles of axons are known as nerves or, within the CNS (central nervous system), as nerve tracts or pathways. Dendrites bring information to the cell body. Myelin  coats and insulates the axon (except for periodic breaks called nodes of Ranvier), increasing transmission speed along the axon. Myelin is manufactured by Schwann's cells, and consists of 70-80% lipids (fat) and 20-30% protein.The  cell body (soma)  contains the neuron's nucleus (with DNA and typical nuclear organelles). Dendrites branch from the cell body and receive messages. A typical neuron has about 1,000 to 10,000 synapses (that is, it communicates with 1,000-10,000 other neurons, muscle cells, glands, etc. ). DIFFERENT TYPES OF NEURONS There are different types of neuron s. They all carry electro-chemical nerve signals, but differ in structure (the number of processes, or axons, emanating from the cell body) and are found in different parts of the body. Sensory neurons or Bipolar neurons  carry messages from the body's sense receptors (eyes, ears, etc. ) to the CNS. These neurons have two processes. Sensory neuron account for 0. 9% of all neurons. (Examples are retinal cells, olfactory epithelium cells. ) * Motoneurons or Multipolar neurons  carry signals from the CNS to the muscles and glands. These neurons have many processes originating from the cell body. Motoneurons account for 9% of all neurons. (Examples are spinal motor neurons, pyramidal neurons, Purkinje cells. * Interneurons or Pseudopolare (Spelling) cells  form all the neural wiring within the CNS. These have two axons (instead of an axon and a dendrite). One axon communicates with the spinal cord; one with either the skin or muscle. These neurons have two processes. (Examples are dorsal root ganglia cells. ) LIFE SPAN OF NEURONS Unlike most other cells, neurons cannot regrow after damage (except neurons from the hippocampus). Fortunately, there are about 100 billion neurons in the brain. GLIAL CELLS Glial cells make up 90 percent of the brain's cells.Glial cells are nerve cells that don't carry nerve impulses. The various glial (meaning â€Å"glue†) cells perform many important functions, including: digestion of parts of dead neurons, manufacturing myelin for neurons, providing physical and nutritional support for neurons, and more. Types of glial cells include Schwann's Cells, Satellite Cells,  Microglia, Oligodendroglia, and Astroglia. Neuroglia (meaning â€Å"nerve glue†) are the another type of brain cell. These cells guide neurons during fetal development.